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PREFACA i
CONTENTS iil
LIST OF FIGURES ix
LISF OF TABLES '. xii!
CHAPTER I FOOD AND ITS FUNCTIONS I
CHAPTER 2 WATER 9
Water Structure 10
Physical Properties of Water..: 13
Water as Solvent ( 16
Interactions of Water with Food Materials 18
Water Activity and Food Quality 21
Water Activity and Microbial Safety 23
Water Activity and Chemical and Biochemical Reactivity 25
Water Activity and Physical Properties 25
Water Activity and Packaging 26
CHAPTER 3 CARBOHYDRATES 29
Monosaccharides 32
Cyclization of Aldoses and Ketoses 37
Conformations of Monosaccharides 41
Some Important Monosaccharides 43
Pentoses 43
D-Xylose 43
L-Arabinose 43
D-Ribose 44
Hexoses 44
D-glucose 44
D-fructose 45
D-Galactose 46
D-Mannose 47
Reactions of Carbohydrates 48
Oxidation of Monosaccharides 48
Reduction of Monosaccharides 49
Action of Alkalies upon Sugars 50
Reducing Action of Sugars in Alkaline Solution 52
Action of Acids 54
Condensation with Phenylhydrazine 55
Formation of Esters 56
Reactions of Sugars Due to Hydroxyl Groups 57-
Nonenzymatic Browning Reactions 58
Mai Hard Reactions 58
Ascorbic Acid Oxidation 61
Caramelization 61
Crystallization 63
Oligosaccharides 64
Disaccharides 64
Sucrose 64
Maltose : 66
Lactose • 67
Trisaccharides 68
Polysaccharides 69
Slarch
Starch Granule 70
Structure 72
Slarch Gelatinization ; 75
Gel Formation and Retrogradation : 76
Modified Starch 77
Conversion of Starch to Sweeteners i 79
Glycogen 81
Cellulose 81
Pectin 82
Alginates 85
Carrageenans 87
XanthanGum 89
Locust Bean Gum 91
GuarGum 91
Gum Arabic 91
Agar 92
Fiber 92
Sweetness of Sugars 93
CHAPTER 4 LIPIDS 97
The Composition of Fats 99
Fatty Acids 99
Glycerol (Glycerin) 107
Tngycerides 108
Polymorphism Ill
Mono-and Diglycerides 113
Waxes 115
Phospholipids 117
Steroids ., 120
Lipochromes 122
Lipovitamins 122
Hydrocarbons 122
Deterioration of Triglycerides 123
Hydrolysis , 123
Auloxidation 124
Hydro ge nation 134
Interested fication ; 138
Fats and Oils Technology , 141
Extraction 142
Refining ; 143
Degumming (Deslimming) 143
Neutralization ,; 144
Bleaching 144
Deodorization 145
Deacidification..: 146
Winterization j 146
Margarine Production.; 146
Fat Products ', : 149
Analysis of Oils and Fats 151
Emulsions and Emulsifying Agents 152
CHAPTER 5 AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS 159
Amino Acids 161
Classification of Amino Acids 161
Functional Significance of Amino Acid R-Groups 165
Essential Amino Acids 166
Chemical Reactions of Amino Acids 167
Reactions of Amino Groups 167
Reactions of a-Carboxyl Groups 170
Reactions of R Groups 171
Properties of Amino Acids 173
Acid-base Properties of Amino Acids 173
Solubility 176
Optical Properties 177
PeptideBond 177
Protein Synthesis 180
Classification of Proteins 180
Classification Based on Chemical Composition 180
Classification Based on Biological Function 183
Structures of Proteins 184
Stability of Proteins 189
Physicochemical Properties of Proteins 190
Denaturation 193
Causes of Protein Denaturation 193
Measuring Protein Denaturation 196
Functional Properties of Proteins 198
Determination of Overall Protein Concentration 204
Kjeldahl Method 204
Enhanced Dumas Method 206
Methods Using UV-visible Spectroscopy 207
Other Instrumental Techniques 209
Comparison of Methods 210
Protein Quality , 211
Functions of Proteins 214
CHAPTER 6 ENZYMES 219
Introduction to Enzymes : 219
The Protein Nature of Enzymes 220
Enzyme Classifications 7. 220
Classification According to Properties 220
Classification According to Chemical Composition 224
Enzyme Specificity 225
Commercial Availability of Enzymes 227
Sources of Industrial Enzymes 227
Enzyme Location 229
Production of Industrial Enzymes 229
The Efficiency of Enzymes 230
Enzyme Activity 231
Spacing 231
Effect of pH Change 231
Effect of Temperature Change 233
Effect of Enzyme Concentration 234
Effect of Substrate Concentration 235
Enzyme-Substrate Interactions 235
Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis 236
Michaelis-Menten Kinetics 237
Inhibition of Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions 240
Enzyme Activation 243
Allosteric Enzymes 244
Enzyme Immobilization 245
Methods of Immobilization 246
Carrier-Binding 247
Cross-Linking 250
Entrapping Enzymes 251
Enzyme Applications 252
Carbohydrases .•. 252
Proteolytic Enzymes 256
Lipases 259
Oxidoreductases 259
Novel Applications and Future Uses 263
CHAPTER 7 VITAMINS ANT MINERALS 267
Vitamins 267
Stability of Vitamins 271
Fat Soluble Vitamins 272
Water Soluble Vitamins; 281
Minerals 296
Minerals and Health 297
Mineral Deficiency : 298
Mineral Balance , 298
Classification of Minerals 298
Properties of Some Macro and Trace Minerals 302
CHAPTER 8 FOOD COLORS 319
Natural Pigments 319
Flavonoids 319
Anthocyanins 319
Anthoxanthins 323
Betalains 324
Carotenoids 325
Chlorophyll 329
Myoglobin 330
Caramel 332
Miscellaneous Natural Color Extracts 333
Colors as Food Additives 339
INDEX 341
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